|
|
 |
|
|
The Chinese Dynasties:
Part 3
|
|
|
|
THE ZHOU DYNASTY: 770- 221 BC
The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other. It was philosophers of this period who first enunciated the doctrine of the mandate of heaven (tianming), the notion
that the ruler the governed by divine right but that his dethronement would prove that he had lost the mandate. The doctrine explained and justified the demise of the two earlier dynasties and at the same time
supported the legitimacy of present and future rulers.
.
|
|
|
|
|
|
The term feudal has often been applied to the Zhou period because the Zhou's early decentralized rule invites comparison with medieval rule in Europe. At most, however, the early Zhou system was
proto-feudal, being a more sophisticated version of earlier tribal organization, in which effective control depended more on familial ties than on feudal legal bonds. Whatever feudal elements there may
have been decreased as time went on. The Zhou amalgam of city-states became progressively
|
|
|
|
|
centralized and established increasingly impersonal political and economic institutions. These developments, which probably occurred in the latter Zhou period, were manifested in greater central control over local
governments and a more routinized agricultural taxation.
In 771 B.C. the Zhou court was sacked, and its king was killed by invading barbarians who were allied with rebel lords. The capital was moved eastward
to Luoyang in present-day Henan Province. Because of this shift, historians divide the Zhou era into Western Zhou (1027-771 B.C.) and Eastern Zhou (770-221 B.C.). With the royal line broken, the power of the Zhou
court gradually diminished; the fragmentation of the kingdom accelerated. Eastern Zhou divides into two subperiods. The first, from 770 to 476 B.C., is called the Spring and Autumn Period, after a famous historical
chronicle of the time; the second is known as the Warring States Period (475-221 B.C. )
|
|
|
|
The Zhou began as a semi-nomadic tribe that lived to the west of the Shang kingdom. Due to their nomadic ways, they learned how to work with people of different cultures. After a time, they settled in the
Wei River valley, where they became vassals of the Shang. The Zhou eventually became stronger than the Shang, and in about 1040 B.C. they defeated the Shang in warfare. They built their capital in Xi'an.
Part of their success was the result of gaining the allegiance of disaffected city-states. The Shang were also weakened due to their constant warfare with people to the north.
Traditional Chinese history says that the Zhou were able to take over the Shang because the Shang had degenerated morally. Part of this belief may have been caused by the Zhou themselves, who are credited
with the idea of the Mandate of Heaven.
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Zhou used this idea to validate their takeover and subsequent ruling of the former Shang kingdom. The Mandate of Heaven says that Heaven, or tian, places the mandate, tianming, to rule on any family that is morally worthy of the responsibility. Also, the only way to know if the Mandate of Heaven had been removed from the ruling family was if they were overthrown. If the ruler is overthrown, then the victors had the Mandate of Heaven.
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Zhou adopted much of the Shang lifestyle, often importing Shang families or communities to new towns they built to utilize the knowledge of the Shang artisans. The bronze vessels of the Zhou are
nearly identical with those of the Shang. The Zhou also adopted much of the Shang writing system, rituals, and administration techniques. The Zhou however, began a different form of governing, which was
basically feudal. Land was given to people in elaborate ceremonies. The landowners became vassals to the king. Descent became patriarchal, from father to son, rather than from eldest brother to youngest
brother as practiced by the Shang.
The Zhou, despite transporting the Shang to their cities for their skills, did not want to live directly with the Shang.
|
|
|
|
|
Their capital was divided into two sections, one for the Zhou, that contained the imperial court, and the other half for the transported Shang. Other Zhou cities exhibit this same characteristic. However, this was
the only major change in cities from the Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty. Otherwise, the houses remained the same as in the Shang Dynasty.
|
|
|
|
The Zhou also brought their religion with them. They banned human sacrifice. They practiced the cult of Heaven. The worship of sun and stars was the most important thing. Some of the popular Shang gods
became incorporated into this system. They were lesser gods, and served as feudal lords to the Heaven-god.
The Zhou Dynasty is divided into subperiods. The first is the Western Zhou, which occurs from the time of their victory over the Shang until about 771 B.C. when they were forced east by barbarians from
the north. The king was killed but his son was saved and moved east where a new capital was formed in Loyang. This began the period known as the Eastern Zhou. The Eastern Zhou is further divided into two
time periods, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The Spring and Autumn Period occurred from about 770-476 B.C. During this time, the Zhou emperor steadily lost power due to the
realization by the feudal lords that he was not powerful and could be beaten, which had been proven by the defeat in the west. The second half, the Warring States Period, is so named because of the power
struggle between the large states of China that were trying to gain control over the entire area. It lasted from about 475 - 221 B.C.
|
|
|
|
|
|
This time period of the Warring States is considered the classical age, it was a time of great philosophers. This cultural flowering is sometimes called the One Hundred Schools Period. Confucianism, Taoism, and
Legalism developed during this time. Of these three, Legalism had the most immediate effect, as it was the philosophy that the Qin,
the next dynasty used as the basis of their rule. Some of the most memorable poetry and prose was also written during this time. Other advances included the writing down of the laws, an increase in market places,
and a money economy. The development of iron, and tools made of iron, greatly increased agriculture and thus population exploded.
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Chinese civilization expanded during the time of the Zhou dynasty. The massive size that the dynasty covered was too much for the Zhou leaders to handle due to the poor means of communication. Because
of this, the leaders decided to appoint people to oversee each of the territories. The territories started off as walled off cities. The leader of each of the territories were the lords, each receiving
the title through inheritance. Next in the hierarchy were the fighting men, followed by the peasants and the domestic slaves. Soon, these territories became more independent, eventually breaking away
from the main Zhou dynasty leaders.
|
|
|
|
|
The Zhou society was based on agricultural production. During that time, the land of the lords was divided among the peasants to grow crops. They were divided up into three by three squares, with the eight outer
squares being worked on by the peasants. The center tract of land was worked on by all eight of the peasants for the lord. The extent of this type of land distibution was unclear, but the later dynasties believed
that this was the most equitable way of dealing with land distribution and use.
The religious practice of the Zhou empire reflected their hierarchical way of life. The Zhou kings believed that they were given a mandate from heaven to rule. The kings prayed and sacrificed to Shang Ti, the Lord on
High, now called T'ien (Heaven), and to their ancestors. The lords of the territories prayed to the local nature gods and to the gods of agriculture in addition to their ancestors. If any sacrifices or prayers were
missed, great ill was predicted to fall on the territory or kingdom of the neglectful leader.
|
|
|
|
Eastern Zhou
In 770 BCE, the Zhou kings lost control of the territories they had delegated to their lords. These territories, along with non-Chinese forces, rebelled and defeated the original Zhou capital. The Zhou then formed a
new capital farther East. From this new capital, the Zhou forfeited their political and military control over their territories.
The territories now were larger and more powerful than the original Zhou kingdom. Even though the Zhou were not in control, they still thought they were appointed by the heavans and continued to be the ceremonial
lords of the kingdoms. During this time, there was great economic growth, even among the constant warfare between the territories. It was also during this time that China entered its Iron Age.
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Iron Age brought iron-tipped oxdrawn plows and improved irrigation techniques which increased the agricultural yield which in turn increased the population. With the increase in population came
greater wealth, and people started to become merchants and traders. With the explosion of the merchant and trader class, the improvement of communication was inevitable. The improvement came in the form
of expanding the horseback communication system. This increase in the economic situation allowed the rulers to control more and more territories. Communication was far better than before, and a ruler
could have a larger empire and still be kept up to date on situations that may arise.
|
|
|
|
|
The territories that were located at the edges of the Zhou empire expanded into non-Chinese countries. Upon expanding, the kingdoms of the Zhou became more diversified and these kingdoms selectively chose the aspects
of the newly acquired culture to assimilate into their own. One such aspect was the mounted cavalry. Before, all the Chinese fighting was by foot soldiers. By the 6th century, seven powerful states arose from the
former Zhou territories. With the Zhou dynasty's decline and the rise of power of the former territories, the situation in China became unstable. Then, by the late 5th century, the Zhou dynasty fell into a state of
interstate anarchy, this period was known as the Period of the Warring States.
|
|
|
|
The Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy
403 BCE - 221 BCE
Due to the instability of China, an intellectual movement swept through China that shaped China's state and culture. The most influential of the philosophers was Confucious.
Confucius was the representation of the emerging class of administrators and advisors that were needed to aid rulers deal with the ever-present need of diplomacy with other states and internal administration. Confucius wanted a return to the Zhou style of governing. He believed that the rulers of that period had tried to develope a society based on the example of great personal virtue. By this, Confucius then took to the task of creating a class based on virtue that would take over the high positions of government and lead the people by their example.
|
|
|
|
In addition to Confucianism, another school of philosophy was Taoism.
The principles of Taosim are explained in the Tao-te-Ching or "Classic of the Way and Its Virtue." This text is said to have been created by Lao-tzu and in the works of Chuang-tzu. The Taoist philosophy was based on simplicity. The belief is that the government should be hands off, and let the people deal with the problems of nature and the people should return to primitive agricultural communities.
Legalism was the third school of philosophy. The philosophers felt that, during their time of great disorder and chaos, something needed to be done. The legalist philosophers believed that every aspect of
life should be ruled by a set of strict and impersonal laws. To have this system work, the legalists needed to have a powerful and wealthy state where the ruler had ultimate authority. The wealth and
military strength is what gave the state and ruler power.
|
|
|
|
|
|
Fall of the Zhou Dynasty and the Rise of the Qin State
During the 4th century BCE, the state of Qin, one of the former territories of the Zhou kingdom, emerged as a power. Based on theories of a leading legalist, the Qin kingdom reformed its administration, economy, and
military and became stronger as the Zhou empire weakened and eventually died in 256 BCE. Soon, the Qin had conquered the seven other warring states.
|
|
